Fertility Treatments

Once you have undergone your fertility investigations, you may begin considering the fertility treatment options available to you. Depending on the cause of your fertility problem, your fertility team may recommend a type of treatment called assisted reproductive technology (ART). Here, you will find more information on the options that may be available to you, and what to expect with each treatment.

Fertility treatment explained

Fertility treatment options

There are three main treatment options that may be offered to individuals or couples seeking fertility treatment:1

1. Fertility drugs

Medication to help induce ovulation can be offered to women trying to conceive naturally, as well as those undergoing ART.
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) may be offered clomifene citrate, metformin, or a combination of both.2 Gonadotrophins (are a group of hormones) may also be given to women who have an ovulation disorder that affects the release of hormones from their brain.3

2. Surgery

Men who have no sperm count due to an obstruction in their epididymis (the tube that carries sperm from the testes) may be offered surgical correction to help improve fertility. Women who suffer from conditions such as endometriosis, mild tubal disease, or a build-up of uterine scar tissue, may also be offered surgery to help improve their chances of pregnancy.1

3. Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)

ART is an established type of fertility treatment that includes in vitro fertilisation (IVF), intrauterine insemination (IUI), and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). ART may also include zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) and gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), although these are no longer widely used.1
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What is IVF?

IVF is a common fertility treatment option that involves the fertilisation of eggs with sperm, outside of the body.It is used for a variety of patients, from women affected by endometriosis to those with ovulatory dysfunction, and has demonstrated excellent success rates.4

What does a full cycle of IVF involve?

The stages of an IVF cycle will vary depending on the protocol used. However, they will typically include:

What does a full cycle of IVF involve?

The stages of an IVF cycle will vary depending on the protocol used. However, they will typically include:

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Micronised Vaginal Progesterone

1. Pre-treatment

Purpose: to improve response to hormone therapy, minimise the risk of an ovarian cyst forming, and help ensure that the timing of egg collection coincides with the availability of clinical and laboratory staff.1
Involves the administration of medication in the 
form of a combined oral contraceptive pill, progestogen, or oestrogen, before ovarian downregulation or stimulation.1

2. Downregulation

Purpose: to prevent a premature hormone surge and therefore reduce the risk of a cycle being cancelled due to eggs being released before they can be collected surgically.1 Involves the use of either gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists or antagonists.1

3. Controlled ovarian stimulation

Purpose: to produce a number of mature eggs to be retrieved during egg collection.1 Involves the use of hormones called gonadotrophins, such as human menopausal gonadotrophin (hMG) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Clomifene citrate tablets may also be used.1

4. Ovulation trigger

Purpose: to initiate ovulation by mimicking the luteinising hormone (LH) surge that occurs in a natural menstrual cycle, stimulating the eggs to be released so that they can be collected during egg retrieval.1 Involves an ovulation trigger, in the form of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), as well as careful monitoring via ultrasound scans to prevent ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) and determine optimal timing for egg retrieval.1

5. Egg and sperm retrieval

Purpose: to retrieve gametes (eggs and sperm) for fertilisation in the laboratory.1 Involves administration of sedative medication in order to facilitate the procedure and insertion of a thin needle through the vagina by ultrasound guidance to collect the eggs for fertilisation,1,5 and production of a semen sample via masturbation by the man (unless samples have been previously frozen, or surgical sperm retrieval (SSR) is required).1

6. Embryo replacement

Purpose: to transfer one or two embryos that have been fertilised in the laboratory into the woman’s uterus, to continue development.1 Involves passing of a thin tube called a catheter into the vagina to transfer the embryo or embryos into the womb, without requirement for sedation.6

7. Luteal phase support

Purpose: to support the early phase of pregnancy through stimulating normal luteal phase hormone production and maintaining the structure of the uterus to allow for successful embryo implantation.1,7 Involves the administration of hormones such as vaginal micronised progesterone – the preferred choice by clinicians1 – to overcome the reduced levels of progesterone in women undergoing fertility treatment and increase the chance of a successful pregnancy and live birth.7

Other fertility treatment options

IUI is a form of treatment where sperm are directly inserted into the woman’s uterus around the time of ovulation. It can be carried out in a natural cycle (without the use of medications), or hormones can be administered to stimulate the ovaries to release an egg.1 In a stimulated cycle, the woman will be carefully monitored via ultrasound scan to assess ovarian response. If one to three follicles are seen to be a suitable size, an injection of hCG is given to trigger ovulation. The IUI procedure will then take place 24-36 hours later.1
ICSI is an extension of traditional IVF and is used to overcome male factor infertility. It involves the same protocol as IVF, however the fertilisation of the egg in the laboratory is different. Rather than allowing the sperm to naturally fertilise the egg in a dish, an embryologist will directly inject the sperm into the egg to allow fertilisation to occur.1
Fertility treatment using gamete donation is used for same-sex couples, couples where one or both partners are infertile, and single women. It is strictly regulated by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) which has established age criteria for donors, requires genetic screening tests before donation and prohibits payments to ensure all donations are altruistic.1 For sperm donation, the process involves a fertile man donating sperm at a clinic which is then stored through cryopreservation (freezing of the sample) for later use. The frozen samples are then thawed on the day of treatment and can be used for any ART treatment dependent on its sperm parameters – i.e., count and motility.1 For egg donation, a fertile woman allows several of her eggs to be collected, typically following ovarian stimulation, to enable another woman, who is unable to have treatment with her own eggs, to conceive with IVF. Success rates are related to the age and fertility status of the donor rather than the recipient.1 Individuals and couples who are considering using a donor for their fertility treatment will be offered counselling to discuss the physical and psychological implications of treatment for themselves and potential children.1
Treatment type Whom may it be offered to? Differences to IVF
Intrauterine insemination (IUI) People with:1
  • unexplained infertility
  • mild endometriosis
  • ‘mild’ male factor infertility
  • disability (physical or psychological) preventing vaginal sexual intercourse
  • conditions that require specific consideration in relation to methods of conception (such as after sperm washing in a couple where the male is HIV positive)
  • a treatment plan that involves donor insemination
  • Fertilisation occurs in vivo 
(i.e., in the body) rather than 
in a laboratory9
  • Less invasive than IVF as the woman does not undergo egg collection and embryo transfer9
  • Requires fewer drugs than IVF9
  • Less successful than IVF9
  • Less expensive than IVF – one cycle of IUI is typically a quarter 
of the price of one IVF cycle9
  • Intracytoplasmic injection (ICSI) People with:2
  • poor quality sperm (e.g., low sperm count, slow or no movement, abnormal shape )
  • no sperm in their semen (azoospermia) but sperm in 
their testes that can be surgically removed
  • a history of failed IVF due to poor or no fertilisation of the eggs
  • The treatment protocol is exactly the same, however the method 
of fertilisation is different. A 
skilled embryologist will inject a single sperm into an egg, rather than in IVF where the sperm and the eggs are mixed together and left to fertilise10
  • Sperm donation
  • Same-sex couples 1
  • Single women 1
  • Couples with a male partner affected by azoospermia (absence of sperm in the semen), or 
other serious issues with semen quality, who do not wish to undergo ICSI 1
  • Couples with a male partner who has a high risk of transmitting a genetic disorder to the offspring, an infectious disease to the offspring or woman, or are severely rhesus incompatible1
  • Donated sperm is used rather 
than sperm from the male partner1
  • Egg donation
  • Same-sex couples1
  • Single women or couples with a female partner affected by premature ovarian failure, Turner syndrome, ovarian failure following cancer treatment, or an inheritable genetic disorder 1
  • Single women or couples who have experienced repeated 
IVF failure1
  • Donated eggs are used rather 
than eggs from the female partner1
  • Treatment type Whom may it be offered to? Differences to IVF
    Intrauterine insemination (IUI) People with1:
    • unexplained infertility
    • mild endometriosis
    • ‘mild’ male factor infertility
    • disability (physical or psychological) preventing vaginal sexual intercourse
    • conditions that require specific consideration in relation to methods of conception (such as after sperm washing in a couple where the male is HIV positive)
    • a treatment plan that involves donor insemination
  • Fertilisation occurs in vivo 
(i.e., in the body) rather than 
in a laboratory9
  • Less invasive than IVF as the woman does not undergo egg collection and embryo transfer9
  • Requires fewer drugs than IVF9
  • Less successful than IVF9
  • Less expensive than IVF – one cycle of IUI is typically a quarter 
of the price of one IVF cycle9
  • Intracytoplasmic injection (ICSI) People with2:
  • poor quality sperm (e.g., low sperm count, slow or no movement, abnormal shape )
  • no sperm in their semen (azoospermia) but sperm in 
their testes that can be surgically removed
  • a history of failed IVF due to poor or no fertilisation of the eggs
  • The treatment protocol is exactly the same, however the method 
of fertilisation is different. A 
skilled embryologist will inject a single sperm into an egg, rather than in IVF where the sperm and the eggs are mixed together and left to fertilise10
  • Sperm donation
  • Same-sex couples 1
  • Single women 1
  • Couples with a male partner affected by azoospermia (absence of sperm in the semen), or 
other serious issues with semen quality, who do not wish to undergo ICSI 1
  • Couples with a male partner who has a high risk of transmitting a genetic disorder to the offspring, an infectious disease to the offspring or woman, or are severely rhesus incompatible1
  • Donated sperm is used rather 
than sperm from the male partner1
  • Egg donation
  • Same-sex couples1
  • Single women or couples with a female partner affected by premature ovarian failure, Turner syndrome, ovarian failure following cancer treatment, or an inheritable genetic disorder 1
  • Single women or couples who have experienced repeated 
IVF failure1
  • Donated eggs are used rather 
than eggs from the female partner1
  • Can IVF work for me?

    The chances of success with IVF depend on multiple factors. These include the age and hormone levels of the female partner, the quality and quantity of eggs remaining in the ovaries, how long the individual or couple have been experiencing fertility problems for, and sperm quality of the male partner. 11, 12

    IVF is a suitable treatment option and is the most effective form of fertility treatment for couples with infertility.4 However, every couple and individual are different and therefore will have varying rates of success. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends three cycles of IVF as it is both cost-effective and clinically effective for women under the age of 40, with the cumulative effect of three cycles of IVF increasing the chances of a successful pregnancy to 45-53%.13

    Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH) testing

    Another predictive factor of fertility is a woman’s AMH level. AMH is a hormone that is released from a woman’s developing follicles and indicates their ovarian reserve when measured via a blood test.14 An AMH test can be useful in the management of a patient’s fertility treatment as it can indicate potential ovarian reserve and enable a more personalised treatment regimen. If low AMH levels are detected, a protocol with higher doses of medication might increase the chances of success. High AMH levels are associated with successful IVF treatment because the hormone levels reveal important information about the quality, as well as the quantity, of eggs remaining in a woman’s ovaries.15 However, it is important to note that an AMH test can give inaccurate readings for women with PCOS or who use oral contraceptives.14

    Do you need to be a certain age to be eligible for IVF?

    NICE recommends that women under the age of 43 should be offered IVF treatment if they have been trying to conceive through regular unprotected sex for two years. However, criteria for IVF in the NHS will depend on where you live and the decision of the local integrated care systems (ICSs). Alternatively, if you wish to pay for IVF or are not eligible for NHS-funded IVF treatment, you can have treatment at a private clinic.16

    The effect of maternal age on the average rate of pregnancy

    Annual Fertility Rate (per 1000 married women not using contraception)*

    No Data Found

    No Data Found

    *Calculated on the basis of studies in 10 different populations that did not use contraceptives.17
    Adapted from: Heffner LJ., N Engl J Med 2004.17

    Additionally, as previously discussed, a woman’s age directly impacts their chances of achieving a successful pregnancy and live birth.16 The live birth rate per embryo transferred in IVF is <5% for women 43 years old and older.18 However, women of any age with access to viable eggs or embryos (her own or from a donor) and a receptive uterus (her own or with a gestational surrogate) are capable of achieving motherhood through IVF.

    What can I do to improve my chances of success?

    Whilst the chances of success via IVF may be dependent on factors that are out of your control, such as age, male factor infertility and FSH levels,11,12 there are various lifestyle changes that you can make which have been shown to help improve IVF pregnancy rates.19 You can try:

    What are the risks of IVF?

    Although IVF is a very safe treatment option, it is still important to be mindful of the potential associated risks.

    1. Medication side effects

    These may include hot flushes, headaches, restlessness, and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) (see below).23

    2. Multiple births

    If more than one embryo is transferred to the womb, there is an increased chance of having a multiple birth. The risks associated with having a multiple birth include miscarriage, pregnancy-related high blood pressure, gestational diabetes, anaemia, and requirement of a caesarean section.23 Multiple births may also affect the babies born as they are more likely to be born prematurely or with a low birth weight and are at a higher risk of developing life-threatening conditions. Often only one embryo will be transferred, 
to avoid risks associated with multiple births.23

    3. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS)

    OHSS is a rare complication of IVF that occurs when a woman is extremely sensitive to the hormones given to increase egg production. OHSS generally develops in the week after egg collection when too many eggs develop in the ovaries, which become very large and painful. The symptoms can include pain and bloating low down in your tummy, feeling and being sick, shortness of breath, feeling faint.23 Severe OHSS can be dangerous,23 and can require hospitalisation and close monitoring.24

    4. Ectopic pregnancy

    There is a slightly higher risk of having an ectopic pregnancy (where the embryo implants in the fallopian tube rather than the uterus) associated with IVF.23 If an egg gets stuck in the tubes, it won’t develop into a baby and your health may be at risk. If the pregnancy continues in the tubes, it might cause internal bleeding, pain in the tummy, followed by vaginal bleeding or dark vaginal discharge.24 Unfortunately, it’s not possible to save the pregnancy, and the embryo usually has to be removed using medicine or an operation.24

    Financing IVF

    Is IVF available on the NHS?

    Yes, IVF treatment is available on the NHS. However, your eligibility for NHS-funded treatment depends on where you live, as funding criteria is decided by local integrated care systems (ICSs).

    How many IVF cycles can I have?25

    According to NICE, the NHS should offer women under 40 three cycles of IVF treatment if they meet the following criteria:

    For women who are aged 40 to 42, they should be offered one cycle of IVF treatment on the NHS, if the following criteria are met:

    Additional criteria may need to be met depending on decisions made by the CCG in your local area. If you are ineligible for NHS-funded treatment, you can pay to have IVF at a private clinic.8 There is normally no limitation on the number of cycles a patient can have at a private clinic.

    Funding IVF privately

    If you are not eligible for NHS-funded IVF treatment, or wish to bypass the NHS waiting list, it is possible to pay for IVF treatment at a private clinic. Undergoing IVF treatment at a private clinic can be associated with significant costs, with some cycles costing over £5,000, but it is important to note that prices do vary between clinics.16

    Better conversations with your doctor

    Before your appointment

    Before your appointment

    When you are preparing to attend your first fertility consultation, the whole process may feel overwhelming. However, speaking directly with your doctor can be a great opportunity to discover more about the IVF process and to help you feel more confident about what to expect in your fertility journey.

    To get the most out of your appointment, it can be a good idea to make a note – either on your phone or in a notebook – of any important questions you would like to ask your doctor and bring this with you to your consultation.

    Additionally, your clinic may request that you have some preliminary tests, such as a blood test or a semen analysis, that your doctor can use to discuss a more personalised treatment pathway with you.

    During your appointment

    During your appointment

    When you attend your initial consultation with your doctor, it is useful to bring along any prepared questions you have with you to help guide your conversation.

    Initially, the doctor will talk you through the full IVF process, including required tests and medications, which may answer some of the concerns you have. Afterwards, if you still have any unanswered questions, you should feel free to ask your doctor about these to help familiarise yourself with the treatment journey and help you to know what to expect.

    After your appointment

    After your appointment

    After you have attended your initial appointment, you should hopefully have a clear view of what to expect if you decide to go forward with treatment. You should have been given clear guidance on the next steps to take, including what tests you may need to book. If you have any further questions following your appointment, you should get in touch with your clinic who should be happy to answer these for you.

    Useful questions to ask

    Some commonly asked questions include:

    Interview with Sophie, an IVF patient who talk about the stages of the IVF process and her own journey

    Where is my nearest clinic?

    Whether you’re having fertility treatment on the NHS and want to find out more about your clinic or wish to research your options at a private clinic, visit https://www.hfea.gov.uk/choose-a-clinic/clinic-search/ to find the right choice for you.
    1. National Collaborating Centre for Women’s and Children’s Health (UK). Fertility: Assessment and Treatment for People with Fertility Problems. London: Royal College of Obstetricians & Gynaecologists; 2013. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK247932/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    2. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Fertility problems: assessment and treatment. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg156/chapter/recommendations [Last accessed: r 2023].
    3. Messinis IE. Ovulation induction: a mini review. Human Reproduction 2005;20:2688-2697. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/20/10/2688/603349?login=true [Last accessed: December 2023].
    4. Huang JYJ, Rosenwaks Z. In vitro fertilisation treatment and factors affecting success. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2012;26:777-788. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1521693412001393 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    5. El-Shawarby SA, Margara RA, Trew GH, Lavery SA. A review of complications following transvaginal oocyte retrieval for in-vitro fertilization. Human Fertility 2004;7:127–133. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14647270410001699081 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    6. National Health Service. What happens: IVF. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/what-happens/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    7. van der Linden M, Buckingham K, Farquhar C, Kremer JAM, Metwally M. Luteal phase support for assisted reproduction cycles. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2015. Available at: https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009154.pub3/full [Last accessed: December 2023].
    8. National Health Service. Availability: IVF. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/availability/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    9. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. Intrauterine insemination (IUI). Available at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/explore-all-treatments/intrauterine-insemination-iui/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    10. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). Available at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/explore-all-treatments/intracytoplasmic-sperm-injection-icsi/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    11. van Loendersloot LL, van Wely M, Limpens J, Bossuyt PMM, Repping S, van der Veen F. Predictive factors in in vitro fertilization (IVF): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproductive Update 2010;16:577-589. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/16/6/577/740269 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    12. Bhattacharya S, Maheshwari A, Mollison J. Factors Associated with Failed Treatment: an Analysis of 121,744 Women Embarking on Their First IVF Cycles. Plos One 2013;8: e82249. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0082249#s4 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    13. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. The importance of 3 full cycles of IVF, 2014. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/news/blog/the-importance-of-3-full-cycles-of-ivf#:~:text=Most%20women%20typically%20see%20success,pregnancy%20to%2045%2D53%25. [Last accessed: December 2023].
    14. Copp T, Nickel B, Lensen S, Hammarberg K, Lieberman D, Doust J, Mol BW, McCaffery K. Anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) test information on Australian and New Zealand fertility clinic websites: a content analysis. BMJ Open 2021;11:e046927. Available at: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/11/7/e046927 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    15. Thomas S, Acharya M, Muthukumar K, Chandy A, Kamath MS, Aleyamma TK. Effectiveness of Anti-Mullerian Hormone-tailored Protocol Compared to Conventional Protocol in Women Undergoing In vitro Fertilization: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences 2018;11:24-28. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5892099/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    16. National Health Service. Overview: IVF. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    17. Heffner LJ. Advanced Maternal Age – How Old Is Too Old? New England Journal of Medicine 2004;351:1927-1929. Available at: https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMp048087 [Last accessed: December ].
    18. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. Fertility treatment 2019: trends and figures. Available at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/about-us/publications/research-and-data/fertility-treatment-2019-trends-and-figures/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    19. Boedt T, Dancet E, Fong SL, Peeraer K, De Neubourg D, Pelckmans S, van de Vijver A, Seghers J, Van der Gucht K, Van Calster B, Spiessens C, Matthys C. Effectiveness of a mobile preconception lifestyle programme in couples undergoing in vitro fertilisation (IVF): the protocol for the PreLiFe randomised controlled trial (PreLiFe-RCT). BMJ Open 2019;9: e029665. Available at: https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/7/e029665.abstract [Last accessed: December ].
    20. Van Heertum K, Rossi B. Alcohol and fertility: how much is too much?. Fertility Research and Practice 2017;3. Available at: https://fertilityresearchandpractice.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40738-017-0037-x [Last accessed: December 2023].
    21. Rudick B, Ingles S, Chung K, Stanczyk F, Paulson R, Bendikson K. Characterizing the influence of vitamin D levels on IVF outcomes. Human Reproduction 2012;27:3321–3327. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/humrep/article/27/11/3321/807686 [Last accessed: December 2023].
    22. Budani MC, Tiboni GM. Effects of Supplementation with Natural Antioxidants on Oocytes and Preimplantation Embryos. Antioxidants 2020;9. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7402117/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    23. National Health Service. Risks: IVF. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/risks/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    24. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority. Risks of fertility treatment. Available at: https://www.hfea.gov.uk/treatments/explore-all-treatments/risks-of-fertility-treatment/ [Last accessed: December 2023].
    25. How many IVF cycles can I have. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/availability/